Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS)
For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so join two equal parts. Put a comma before them when they join two complete sentences.
| Conjunction | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| and | addition | He cleaned the rifle, and she checked the radio. |
| but, yet | contrast | The test was hard, but I passed. |
| or | choice | You can take the bus or walk. |
| so | result | It was raining, so we stayed inside. |
| for | reason (formal) | He was tired, for he had worked all night. |
| nor | negative addition (inverted order) | He doesn't smoke, nor does he drink. |
| both… and, either… or, neither… nor, not only… but also | pairs | Neither the captain nor the sergeant was there. |
With either… or and neither… nor, the verb agrees with the nearer subject: "Neither the soldiers nor the officer is ready."
Contrast
| + clause (subject + verb) | + noun or -ing | Between two sentences |
|---|---|---|
| although, even though, though | despite, in spite of | However, … · Nevertheless, … · Even so, … |
| while, whereas (a comparison) | despite the fact that + clause | On the other hand, … |
- Although it was raining, we continued the march.
- Despite the rain, we continued the march.
- In spite of being tired, he finished the run.
- It was raining. However, we continued the march.
Common mistakes
- ✗Wrong: Despite it was raining, we went out.✓Right: Despite the rain, we went out. (or Although it was raining, we went out.)
- ✗Wrong: Although it was raining, but we went out.✓Right: Although it was raining, we went out.
Cause and result
| Cause + clause | Cause + noun or -ing | Result |
|---|---|---|
| because, as, since | because of, due to, owing to, on account of | so, therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, that's why |
- The flight was canceled because the weather was bad.
- The flight was canceled because of the bad weather.
- The weather was bad. Therefore, the flight was canceled.
Common mistakes
- ✗Wrong: Because of it was late, we took a taxi.✓Right: Because it was late, we took a taxi.
Purpose
| Linking word | Followed by | Example |
|---|---|---|
| to, in order to, so as to | base verb | He studies hard in order to pass the ECL. |
| in order not to, so as not to | base verb | We left early so as not to miss the bus. |
| so that | subject + can / could / will / would | Speak louder so that everyone can hear you. |
| for | a noun (or -ing for the use of a thing) | We stopped for lunch. · This knife is for cutting rope. |
Common mistakes
- ✗Wrong: I went to the bank for get money.✓Right: I went to the bank to get money.
Addition, examples, sequence and summary
| Function | Linking words |
|---|---|
| addition | and, also, too, as well, in addition (to), besides, moreover, furthermore, what's more |
| examples | for example, for instance, such as, like, including |
| sequence | first, second, then, next, after that, finally, lastly |
| summary | in conclusion, to sum up, in short, overall |
| condition | if, unless, provided that, in case (see conditionals) |
As prepositions, in addition to, besides and apart from are followed by a noun or -ing: "In addition to working full-time, he studies at night." Besides can also start a sentence: "Besides, it's too late."
Time clauses
when, while, as, before, after, until, as soon as, once, by the time, whenever. In a time clause about the future, use a present tense, not will: "I'll call you as soon as I arrive."
- While I was waiting, I read the manual.
- As soon as the alarm rang, everyone ran outside.
- By the time we got there, the meeting had ended.
Negative words first: inversion
When a negative or limiting word starts the sentence for emphasis, the auxiliary comes before the subject, as in a question. This is formal English.
| Normal | Inverted |
|---|---|
| I have never seen such a mess. | Never have I seen such a mess. |
| He not only speaks French, but he also writes it. | Not only does he speak French, but he also writes it. |
| We had hardly arrived when it started to rain. | Hardly had we arrived when it started to rain. |
| He had no sooner left than the phone rang. | No sooner had he left than the phone rang. |
| You will understand only then. | Only then will you understand. |
| We rarely see such courage. | Rarely do we see such courage. |
| You must not open this door under any circumstances. | Under no circumstances must you open this door. |
Common mistakes
- ✗Wrong: Never I have seen such a mess.✓Right: Never have I seen such a mess.
Quick check
Choose an answer: the explanation appears straight away.
1___ the heavy traffic, we arrived on time.
2He left early ___ he could catch the first bus.
3The road was blocked. ___, we had to take another route.
4___ it was late, the captain continued the briefing.
5Not only ___ late, but he also forgot his ID.
More practice: sample questions on this topic, with answers.
All 48 questions on this topic, in a new order each time.